PRESCRIPTIONS AND DRUGS: PRINCIPLES, TYPES, AND CLINICAL USE
Keywords:
prescription practice, pharmacological agents, drug therapy, dosage regulation, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, rational drug use, adverse drug reactions, drug interactions, clinical pharmacology, therapeutic efficacy, patient safety.Abstract
Prescriptions and drugs are essential components of modern medical practice. They ensure effective treatment, prevention, and diagnosis of diseases. Proper prescription writing and rational drug use significantly improve patient safety and treatment outcomes. This article provides a detailed overview of prescription principles, drug classification, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, routes of administration, adverse drug reactions, and clinical importance..
References
1)Katzung, B. G. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 15th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2023.
2)Brunton, L. L. Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2022.
3)Rang, H. P., Dale, M. M. Rang & Dale’s Pharmacology. 9th ed. Elsevier; 2020.
4)World Health Organization (WHO). Promoting rational use of medicines. Geneva: WHO; 2024.
4. Affaitati G, Costantini R, Tana C, Cipollone F, Giamberardino MA. Co-occurrence of pain syndromes. J Neural Transm. (2020) 127:625–46. doi: 10.1007/s00702-019-02107-8
5. Graven-Nielsen T. Fundamentals of muscle pain, referred pain, and deep tissue hyperalgesia. Scand J Rheumatol Suppl. (2006) 122:1–43. doi: 10.1080/03009740600865980
6. Whitty C, Willison RGJL. Some aspects of referred pain. Lancet. (1958) 272:226–31. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(58)90058-8
7. Vulfsons S, Bar N, Eisenberg E. Back pain with leg pain. Curr Pain Headache Rep. (2017) 21:32. doi: 10.1007/s11916-017-0632-x
8. Giamberardino MA. Referred muscle pain/hyperalgesia and central sensitisation. J Rehabil Med. (2003) 35:85–8. doi: 10.1080/16501960310010205
9. Luz LL, Fernandes EC, Sivado M, Kokai E, Szucs P, Safronov BV. Monosynaptic convergence of somatic and visceral C-fiber afferents on projection and local circuit neurons in lamina I: a substrate for referred pain. Pain. (2015) 156:2042–51. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000267
10. Merskey H, Bogduk N. Classification of chronic pain. Descriptions of chronic pain syndromes and definition of pain terms. Seattle: IASP Press (1994) 1–28.
11. Hockaday JM, Whitty CW. Patterns of referred pain in the normal subject. Brain. (1967) 90:481–96. doi: 10.1093/brain/90.3.481
12. McCall IW, Park WM, O’Brien JP. Induced pain referral from posterior lumbar elements in Normal subjects. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). (1979) 4:441–6.
13. Finnerup NB, Kuner R, Jensen TS. Neuropathic pain: from mechanisms to treatment. Physiol Rev. (2021) 101:259–301. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2019
14. Moore CI, Stern CE, Dunbar C, Kostyk SK, Gehi A, Corkin S. Referred phantom sensations and cortical reorganization after spinal cord injury in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. (2000) 97:14703–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.250348997
15. Finnerup NB, Norrbrink C, Fuglsang-Frederiksen A, Terkelsen AJ, Hojlund AP, Jensen TS. Pain, referred sensations, and involuntary muscle movements in brachial plexus injury. Acta Neurol Scand. (2010) 121:320–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2009.01248.x
16. Htut M, Misra P, Anand P, Birch R, Carlstedt T. Pain phenomena and sensory recovery following brachial plexus avulsion injury and surgical repairs. J Hand Surg. (2006) 31:596–605. doi: 10.1016/J.JHSB.2006.04.027
17. Bolognini N, Olgiati E, Maravita A, Ferraro F, Fregni F. Motor and parietal cortex stimulation for phantom limb pain and sensations. Pain. (2013) 154:1274–80. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.03.040
18. Forstenpointner J, Wolff S, Stroman PW, Jansen O, Rehm S, Baron R, et al. "from ear to trunk"-magnetic resonance imaging reveals referral of pain. Pain. (2018) 159:1900–3. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001279
19. Mellin G, Hurri H. Referred limb symptoms in chronic low back pain. J Spinal Disord. (1990) 3:52–8. doi: 10.1097/00002517-199003000-00009
20. Derby R, Lee SH, Seo KS, Kazala K, Kim BJ, Mi JK. Efficacy of IDET for relief of leg pain associated with Discogenic low Back pain. Pain Pract. (2004) 4:281–5. doi: 10.1111/j.1533-2500.2004.04401.
